Cancer

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Cancer

Cancer

Conditions Treated

Anal Cancer:

The term "anal cancer" usually refers to a squamous cell cancer (SCC) of the anal canal, which represents the majority of cancers arising in the anal region. However, SCCs can also arise in the perianal skin and in the rectum, and SCCs arising at these sites are generally treated in the same manner as anal canal SCCs. On the other hand, the treatment paradigm for anal adenocarcinomas, which are much less common than anal SCCs, is similar to that for rectal adenocarcinomas, with resection representing an important component of multimodality therapy for most patients.

What is anal cancer?

Anal cancer happens when normal cells lining the anus change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The anus is the last part of the digestive tract where bowel movements leave the body.

What are the symptoms of anal cancer?

Anal cancer does not always cause symptoms at first. People who do have symptoms can have:

Bleeding from their anus
Pain in or around their anus
A growth in their anus
Itching in their anus

All of these symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for anal cancer?

Yes. To check for anal cancer, your doctor or nurse will look at your anus and do a "digital rectal exam." During a digital rectal exam, your doctor or nurse will put a gloved finger into your anus and lower rectum to feel for abnormal growths.

They might do 1 or more of the following tests:

Anoscopy – During an anoscopy, the doctor puts a short tube with a light on the end (called an "anoscope") into your anus and rectum. They will use the anoscope to look for abnormal areas or growths
Biopsy – A doctor can remove a small sample of tissue from the anus. Another doctor will look at the sample under a microscope to see if it has cancer.

Doctors sometimes find cells in the anus that are not cancer but are abnormal and have a high chance of turning into cancer. Your doctor can treat these "pre-cancer" cells in different ways. They might remove them to help keep them from turning into cancer. Or they might watch them closely over time.

What is anal cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out if a cancer has spread past the layer of tissue where it began and, if so, how far.

The right treatment for you will depend on the stage of your anal cancer, and your other medical problems.

How is anal cancer treated?

Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.

Anal cancer is sometimes treated with surgery to remove the cancer. Most people don't need surgery. But if radiation therapy and chemotherapy do not work, or if your cancer comes back after treatment, your doctor might recommend surgery.

What happens after treatment?

After treatment, you will be checked every so often to see if the cancer comes back. Regular follow-up tests include exams (including digital rectal exams) and anoscopy. Some people also have follow-up imaging tests. Imaging tests can create pictures of the inside of your body.

You should also watch for the symptoms listed above. Having those symptoms could mean the cancer has come back. Tell your doctor or nurse if you have any symptoms.

What happens if the cancer comes back or spreads?

If the cancer comes back or spreads, you might need surgery or more chemotherapy.

Basal Cell Skin Cancer

B-Cell Lymphomas and T Cell Lymphomas

Bone Cancer

Breast Cancer:

What is breast cancer?

Breast cancer happens when normal cells in the breast change and grow out of control. People sometimes discover that they have breast cancer because they find a lump in their breast. Other times, cancer is found during a routine screening test, before a lump can be felt.

Breast cancer is much more common in females, but anyone can get it. Breast cancer sometimes runs in families.

If you feel a lump in your breast, see your doctor or nurse right away. Breast lumps can be caused by conditions that are not cancer. But you should have any lumps checked out.

Is there a test for breast cancer?

Yes. Doctors use a special kind of X-ray called a "mammogram" to check for breast cancer. If a mammogram finds a spot that looks like it could be cancer, doctors usually follow up with other imaging tests. These might include an ultrasound or MRI scan.

In some cases, another test called a "biopsy" will be done. During a biopsy, a doctor takes 1 or more small samples of tissue from the breast. Then, they look at the cells under a microscope to check for cancer.

What is breast cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far a cancer has spread. The right treatment for you will depend, in part, on the stage of your cancer.

How is breast cancer treated?

Most people with breast cancer have 1 or more of the following treatments:

Surgery – Breast cancer is usually treated with surgery to remove the cancer. Many people with breast cancer can choose between 2 types of surgery
Mastectomy is surgery to remove the whole breast. (If you choose this option, you might have to decide whether to have surgery to reconstruct your breast and when.)
Breast-conserving surgery is surgery to remove the cancer and a section of healthy tissue around it. This is also called "lumpectomy." People who choose this option keep their breast. But they usually need to have radiation therapy after surgery.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. Some people take these medicines before surgery to shrink the cancer and make it easier to remove. Some take these medicines after surgery to prevent cancer from growing, spreading, or coming back.
Endocrine therapy – Some forms of breast cancer grow in response to the hormone estrogen. "Endocrine therapy" means treatments that block estrogen or prevent your body from making estrogen.
Targeted therapy – Some medicines work only on cancers that have certain characteristics. Your doctor might test you to see if you have a kind of cancer that would respond to this therapy.
Immunotherapy – This means medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system to stop cancer growth. Immunotherapy might be used with chemotherapy to treat certain types of advanced breast cancers.

Brain Cancer:

What is brain cancer?

Brain cancer happens when normal cells in the brain change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. There are different types of brain cancer. Some types grow very slowly. Others grow much faster.

As brain cancer grows, it can spread into normal parts of the brain. It can also cause swelling in the brain. These can cause symptoms.

What are the symptoms of brain cancer?

Often, one of the first symptoms of brain cancer is a seizure. Seizures are caused by abnormal electrical activity in the brain. A seizure can cause a person to:

Suddenly have trouble speaking or understanding
Stare off into space
Lose control of an arm or a leg
Pass out
Stiffen and then have jerking movements of the arms or legs
Lose muscle control throughout the body

Other symptoms of brain cancer can include:

Headache, often with nausea or vomiting
Vision changes, such as double vision or a loss of vision
Memory problems or having trouble thinking clearly
Weakness or numbness in the arms or legs
Personality changes

These symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not brain cancer. But you should let your doctor or nurse know if you have any of these symptoms.

Is there a test for brain cancer?

Yes. Doctors use imaging tests such as CT or MRI scans to help diagnose brain cancer. These tests create images of your brain and can show tumors or abnormal growths.

After an imaging test, your doctor might follow up with another test called a biopsy. During a biopsy, a doctor takes a very small sample of the brain tissue. They will look at the sample under a microscope to see if cancer is present. Other times, your doctor might recommend surgery right away. With surgery, doctors can try to remove a tumor or growth, and can take a tissue sample for testing at the same time.

The right treatment for you will depend a lot on the type of brain cancer you have, and how fast the cancer is growing. Your treatment will also depend on your symptoms, age, and other health problems.

How is brain cancer treated?

Different treatments can include:

Surgery – During surgery, doctors try to remove as much of the cancer as possible. Often, brain cancer cannot be cured with surgery, but surgery might reduce symptoms and help people live longer. On the other hand, surgery can also lead to more symptoms or problems. This is because healthy parts of the brain can be damaged during surgery. How much cancer can be removed depends on where the cancer is in the brain.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells. People might receive radiation therapy after surgery, or when surgery is not possible.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. People might receive these medicines during or after radiation therapy to keep the cancer from growing, spreading, or coming back.
Electrical device – In some cases, people with certain kinds of brain cancer might be able to try treatment with a device they wear on their head. The device creates a special type of electricity, which might help slow down cancer growth.

People with brain cancer also receive treatment for any symptoms they have. For example, people might take medicines to control seizures.

Central Nervous System Cancers

Cervical Cancer:

Cervical cancer is cancer that starts in the cells of the cervix. The cervix is the lower, narrow end of the uterus (womb).

The two main types are:

Squamous cell carcinoma: Most cervical cancers (up to 90%) are squamous cell carcinomas.
Adenocarcinoma: Cervical adenocarcinomas also called clear cell carcinoma or mesonephroma, is a rare type of cervical adenocarcinoma.

Sometimes, cervical cancer has features of both squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma. This is called mixed carcinoma or adenosquamous carcinoma. Very rarely, cancer develops in other cells in the cervix.

Symptoms:

In earlier stage, cervical cancer usually doesn’t have symptoms, which makes it hard to detect. Symptoms usually begin after the cancer has spread.

Symptoms of Early-stage Cervical Cancer , if they occur, may include:

Vaginal bleeding after menopause
Vaginal bleeding between periods or periods that are heavier or longer than normal
Vaginal bleeding after sex
Vaginal discharge that is watery and has a strong odor or that contains blood
Pelvic pain or pain during sex

Symptoms of advanced Cervical Cancer (cancer has spread beyond the cervix to other parts of the body) may include the symptoms of early-stage cervical cancer

difficult or painful bowel movements or bleeding from the rectum when having a bowel movement
Difficult or painful urination or blood in the urine
Dull backache
Swelling of the legs
Pain or ache in the abdomen
Dull backache
Feeling tired

These symptoms may be caused by many conditions other than cervical cancer. The only way to know is to see a health professional. If it is cervical cancer, ignoring symptoms can delay treatment and make it less effective.

What is cervical cancer screening?

Screening tests look for cancer cells in the cervix. The cervix is the bottom part of the uterus, where it meets the vagina.

Screening tests also look for cells that could turn into cancer, called "precancer." They can find cervical cancer and precancer in the early stages, when it can be treated or even cured.

What tests are used to screen for cervical cancer?

There are a few different ways to screen:

Pap test – This is sometimes called a "Pap smear." It involves taking cells from the surface of the cervix and sending them to a lab. Then, an expert will check the cells under a microscope.
HPV test – HPV stands for "human papillomavirus." Some types of this virus can cause cervical cancer. An HPV test involves testing cells from the cervix for certain types of HPV.
Combination test – This means doing a Pap and HPV test at the same time.

What happens during a Pap or HPV test?

For both types of tests, your doctor will take cells from the surface of your cervix. To do this, they will gently insert a device called a "speculum" into your vagina. The device helps to push apart the walls of your vagina so that the doctor can see the cervix. Then, they will use a small tool to lightly scrape cells from the surface of your cervix. The tool looks like a small spatula or brush. This might be a little uncomfortable, but usually does not hurt.

When should I start being screened for cervical cancer?

Most experts recommend that you start having Pap tests when you turn 21. Some experts recommend HPV tests instead of Pap tests, starting at age 25. But this option might not be available in many places. Your doctor or nurse can talk to you about your options.

You should start getting Pap tests at the recommended age, whether or not you have ever been sexually active. Also, you do not need to start cervical cancer screening before age 21, even if you became sexually active at a younger age.

What should I do to prepare for a Pap or HPV test?

You do not need to do anything special to prepare. People sometimes hear that they should not have sex or put anything in their vagina for 2 days before a Pap test, but this is not necessary. Pap tests work fine even if you have had sex recently.

Your doctor might recommend scheduling your test for when you do not expect to have your period. But don't worry if you do have your period on the day of the test. Screening can usually still be done even if you are bleeding. Your doctor can talk with you and let you know what to do.

How often should I be screened for cervical cancer?

That depends on how old you are and the results of your past tests.

If you are age 21 to 29, you should have a Pap test every 3 years. Or, if your doctor recommends HPV testing instead, you should have a test every 5 years beginning at age 25.
If you are age 30 or older, you can have a Pap test every 3 years. The other options are having an HPV test every 5 years or a combination Pap and HPV test every 5 years.
If you are age 65 or older, you can stop having Pap tests if:
- You had Pap tests done regularly until you turned 65.
- You had 3 normal Pap tests in a row, or 2 normal combination Pap and HPV tests over the past 10 years (if the most recent test was within the past 5 years).
- You do not have other medical conditions that could weaken your immune system – These include taking certain medicines or having HIV.

You might also get a Pap test for reasons other than cervical cancer screening. For example, if you have abnormal vaginal bleeding, your doctor might do a Pap test to try to figure out the cause.

Do I need to be screened for cervical cancer if I had a hysterectomy?

If you have had surgery called a "hysterectomy" to remove your uterus, ask your doctor if you need to keep getting screened. After a hysterectomy, you probably do not need screening if:

Your cervix was removed along with your uterus
You did not have cervical cancer or precancer (sometimes called "dysplasia")

If you're not sure, your doctor can help you figure out if you need to continue screening.

Do I need to get screening tests if I had the HPV vaccine?

Yes. Getting the HPV vaccine lowers your chances of getting an HPV infection that could lead to cervical cancer. But it does not completely protect you. You should still be screened for cancer or precancer.

What if I have an abnormal Pap test result?

Abnormal Pap tests are common, and most people with an abnormal Pap test do not have cancer. If your Pap test has cells that look abnormal, your doctor or nurse can do more tests to figure out what is causing this. They will decide what to do based on your age, what your Pap test shows, and the results of any other tests you had.

Follow-up tests might include:

An HPV test – If you haven't already had an HPV test, your doctor might order one. They might be able to do this on the cells already taken during your Pap test.
Another Pap test in 12 months – Sometimes, if you wait a year and have another Pap test, you could find that the abnormal cells are back to normal. You might also have an HPV test at the same time.
A colposcopy – For this test, the doctor or nurse will use a speculum to look at your cervix, just like during a Pap test. But they will look more closely using a device that looks like a microscope. It allows the doctor or nurse to see the cervix in more detail. During this test, the doctor or nurse might also take tiny samples of tissue from the cervix. This is called a "biopsy." The tissue samples are checked in a lab.

If you do have cervical cancer or precancer, there are effective treatments available. If your condition was found early, there is a good chance that you can be cured.

Most people who have sex will be exposed to HPV at some point, and having HPV does not mean that you will definitely get cancer. For most people, HPV infection goes away on its own. But for some people, it does not. Long-lasting HPV infection increases your risk of cancer over time.

If your HPV test comes back positive, your doctor or nurse will talk with you about what to do. This will partly depend on whether your Pap test results were abnormal. If your HPV test is positive but your Pap test is normal, you might need to repeat the tests in 1 year so your doctor can see if anything has changed.

Colorectal Cancer(CRC):

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common and lethal disease. In the United States, approximately 153,000 new cases of large bowel cancer are diagnosed annually . CRC can be diagnosed after the onset of symptoms or through screening asymptomatic individuals.

Warning Signs:

Patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) may present in three ways:

-The presence of suspicious symptoms and/or signs (rectal bleed, abdominal pain, and weight loss).
-Asymptomatic individuals discovered by routine screening or as a result of findings from a radiographic study done for another purpose .
-Emergency admission with intestinal obstruction, peritonitis, or rarely, an acute gastrointestinal bleed.

Most CRCs are diagnosed after the onset of symptoms (most commonly rectal bleeding, abdominal pain, otherwise unexplained iron deficiency anemia, and/or a change in bowel habits).

A change in bowel habits is a more common presenting symptom for left-sided as compared with right-sided cancers. Hematochezia is more likely with rectal than colon cancers, and occult colonic bleeding is more common with cecal and ascending colon cancers.

A positive fecal occult blood test has a much higher predictive value that any single or combination of symptoms, warranting a high priority for colonoscopy follow-up.

One in five patients with CRC presents with metastatic disease, with the most common sites being regional lymph nodes, liver, lungs, and peritoneum.

Treatment:

Stage 1-2 can be treated with Surgery and Stage 3 with Surgery followed by Adjuvant Chemo and Stage 4 with Chemotherapy only.

Colon Cancer

Diffuse Large B Cell Lymphoma:

What is diffuse large B cell lymphoma?

Diffuse large B cell lymphoma, or "DLBCL," is a type of lymphoma. Lymphoma is a cancer of lymphocytes, which are infection-fighting cells of the body's lymphatic system. The lymphatic system is made up of organs all over the body that make and store cells that fight infection

When people have DLBCL, their lymphocytes become abnormal and grow out of control. These cells can travel to different parts of the body. Often, the abnormal cells collect in small, bean-shaped organs called lymph nodes. This causes the lymph nodes to swell.

DLBCL is a common type of lymphoma. It usually happens in older people. It grows quickly, so it needs to be treated quickly.

What are the symptoms of DLBCL?

Most people with DLBCL first notice 1 or more swollen lymph nodes. These swollen nodes are often in the neck, groin, or belly. They can sometimes be felt under the skin, but they are usually not painful.

People with DLBCL can also have:

Fever
Weight loss
Night sweats that soak their clothes

Is there a test for DLBCL?

Yes. Your doctor or nurse will talk with you and do an exam. They will also do:

Blood tests
Lymph node biopsy – A doctor removes 1 of the swollen lymph nodes. It is then looked at under a microscope to see if cancer cells are present.

What is lymphoma staging?

Lymphoma staging is a way in which doctors find out how far the lymphoma has spread in the lymphatic system or in the body. The right treatment for you depends a lot on the stage of your lymphoma.

To find out how far your DLBCL has spread, your doctor will do an exam, blood tests, and an imaging test, such as a CT or PET scan. Imaging tests create pictures of the inside of the body.

Your doctor might also do a bone marrow biopsy. For this test, a small sample of bone marrow (the tissue in the center of bones) is examined under a microscope to check for lymphoma.

How is DLBCL treated?

People with DLBCL are usually treated with:

Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
"Immunotherapy" – These are medicines that kill cancer cells by attacking the lymphoma cells.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.

All people with DLBCL get chemotherapy and immunotherapy. Some people also get radiation therapy.

Esophageal and Esophagogastric Junction Cancers

Gastric Cancer:

What is stomach cancer?

Stomach cancer happens when normal cells in the stomach change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The stomach is part of the digestive system. There are different kinds of stomach cancer, depending on the type of cells and part of the stomach involved.

Some people who get stomach cancer have a condition called "H. pylori" infection. H. pylori is a type of bacteria that can infect the stomach and intestines. Infection with H. pylori sometimes causes symptoms such as belly pain, bloating, nausea, or vomiting. If it is not treated, it can lead to stomach cancer.

What are the symptoms of stomach cancer?

At first, stomach cancer might not cause any symptoms. When stomach cancer causes symptoms, they can include:

Weight loss
Belly pain, especially in the upper belly
Trouble swallowing
Having no appetite, or feeling full after eating a small amount of food
Nausea
Feeling tired or short of breath (from a condition called "anemia," which is when people have too few red blood cells)

All of these symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not stomach cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

What are the symptoms of stomach cancer?

Stomach cancer happens when normal cells in the stomach change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The stomach is part of the digestive system (figure 1). There are different kinds of stomach cancer, depending on the type of cells and part of the stomach involved.

What are the symptoms of stomach cancer?

At first, stomach cancer might not cause any symptoms. When stomach cancer causes symptoms, they can include:

Weight loss
Belly pain, especially in the upper belly
Trouble swallowing
Having no appetite, or feeling full after eating a small amount of food
Nausea
Feeling tired or short of breath (from a condition called "anemia," which is when people have too few red blood cells).

All of these symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not stomach cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for stomach cancer?

Yes. Tests for stomach cancer can include:

Upper endoscopy – This is the test most often done for stomach cancer. During this test, the doctor puts a thin tube with a camera and light on the end into the mouth and down into the stomach. This lets the doctor look at the stomach lining
Biopsy – Doctors do this test during an upper endoscopy. The doctor takes a small sample of tissue from an abnormal-looking area of the stomach. Then, another doctor looks at the tissue under a microscope.
Blood tests
Imaging tests of the stomach, such as a CT scan – Imaging tests create pictures of the inside of the body.

Your doctor will also check for H. pylori infection. Doctors can do this in different ways. They include looking at a stomach biopsy or doing breathe tests, blood tests, or other lab tests.

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out if a cancer has spread past the layer of tissue where it began and, if so, how far.

The right treatment for you will depend a lot on the type and stage of your stomach cancer and your other medical problems.

How is stomach cancer treated?

Stomach cancer is usually treated with 1 or more of the following:

Surgery to remove the cancer – During surgery, the doctor might remove part or all of your stomach. If the doctor removes all of your stomach, they will reconnect your digestive tract so that you can eat.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. Sometimes, people get chemotherapy before they have surgery.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.
Immunotherapy – This is the term doctors use for medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system (the "immune system") to stop cancer growth.

Stomach cancer can sometimes be cured with treatment. This is most likely when the cancer is found at an early stage. But often, stomach cancer is not found at an early stage. If your stomach cancer cannot be cured, your doctor can do other treatments to help with your symptoms.

If you have H. pylori infection, your doctor will treat it with medicines. This usually involves taking 3 or more medicines for 1 to 2 weeks. Taking medicine for H. pylori infection will not get rid of your cancer. But it might lower the chances that your cancer will come back again after treatment.

Gall Bladder Cancer:

What is gallbladder cancer?

Gallbladder cancer happens when normal cells in the gallbladder change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ that is tucked under the liver. The gallbladder stores bile, a fluid that is made in the liver and helps the body break down fat.

Most people with gallbladder cancer have or have had another gallbladder condition called "gallstones." Gallstones are small stones that form inside the gallbladder and can irritate its inner lining.

What are the symptoms of gallbladder cancer?

Early on, gallbladder cancer might not cause any symptoms. In many cases, gallbladder cancer is found unexpectedly when:

A doctor takes out the gallbladder to treat symptoms that are thought to be caused by gallstones. (Gallstones can cause symptoms similar to those of gallbladder cancer.)
A doctor does imaging tests of the belly for another reason. Imaging tests create pictures of the inside of the body.

When gallbladder cancer causes symptoms, they can include:

Belly pain, especially in the upper right side or upper middle part of the belly
Loss of appetite
Nausea or vomiting
Weight loss
Jaundice, which is when the skin and white part of the eye turn yellow

All of these symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not gallbladder cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for gallbladder cancer?

Yes. To check for gallbladder cancer, your doctor will do an imaging test. Imaging tests can include an ultrasound, CT scan, or MRI scan.

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out if a cancer has spread past the layer of tissue where it began, and, if so, how far.

The right treatment for you will depend a lot on the stage of your gallbladder cancer and your other medical problems.

How is gallbladder cancer treated?

Gallbladder cancer is usually treated with 1 or more of the following:

Surgery
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.

Gallbladder cancer can sometimes be cured with treatment. This is most likely when the cancer is found at an early stage. But, often, gallbladder cancer is not found at an early stage. If your gallbladder cancer cannot be cured, your doctor can do other treatments to help with your pain, jaundice, or other symptoms.

Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GIST)

Hereditary Cancers:

Cancer can run in families. Genetic Counselling is a cornerstone of these Cancer Syndromes.

Genetic counseling is the process of helping people understand and adapt to the medical, psychological, and familial implications of genetic contributions to disease. Most consultations occur over one to three visits.

A preliminary assessment based on available data and family history be conducted before the patient is seen. The initial visit focuses on reviewing information, providing accurate risk assessment, and addressing psychosocial issues.

Who Needs it – Individuals with strong family histories for conditions with known genetic bases considered high risk should be offered referral to genetics professional. Referral may also be appropriate if there is uncertainty about the genetic contributions to a disease in a family, patient anxiety about a family member's condition, or misunderstanding of risk.
Preparation – The referral should include specific questions to be addressed, a summary of the family history, and patient's medical history, and results of available testing. The patient should understand that they are being referred to determine whether testing would be helpful
Risk assessment – The family history is the initial step in assessing inherited risk for many chronic conditions. When possible, patients should be encouraged to complete written or online family history questionnaires prior to their initial visit. Online resources are available for collecting family history information and constructing a family tree (pedigree). The family history should be clearly and completely documented in the medical record.
Support and advice – The genetic counseling session also provides psychosocial support and information about risk modification strategies that may be appropriate for the patient and/or family. This may involve more aggressive screening (earlier, more frequent, other modalities), lifestyle or dietary modifications, and/or medical or surgical interventions. The counselor and referring clinician can coordinate long-term risk modification and management for patients and affected family members. The primary care clinician is often responsible for long-term follow-up.
Testing and disclosure – Separate topic reviews discuss genetics terminology, genetic testing, personalized medicine (including direct-to-consumer testing), genomic sequencing, and disclosure of incidental findings from genetic testing. (See "Genetics: Glossary of terms" and "Genetic testing" and "Personalized medicine" and "Secondary findings from genetic testing".)

Online Tools for locating a Couselor:

Resources for locating a genetic counselor are available online:

The National Society of Genetic Counselors (NSGC) in the United States has a locator tool for counselors according to geographical location and area of specialization(https://www.nsgc.org/page/find-a-genetic-counselor)
The American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) has a searchable database for clinics that provide genetic counseling (https://clinics.acmg.net/).
The National Cancer Institute (NCI) in the United States has a searchable directory for counselors with expertise in cancer syndromes (http://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/genetics/directory).
The March of Dimes in the United States will provide information about services through contact with its local chapters (http://www.marchofdimes.org/contact-us.aspx).
A centralized genetic counseling service for United States Veterans known as the Genomic Medicine Service (GMS) was established in 2008 and is available through many of the Veteran's Administration medical centers. This service provides genetic evaluation primarily by video (telehealth) for individuals for whom in-person counseling is not feasible.

Head and Neck Cancers

Hepatobiliary Cancer

Hodgkin Lymphoma:

What is Hodgkin lymphoma?

Hodgkin lymphoma (which used to be called "Hodgkin's disease") is a type of lymphoma. Lymphoma is a cancer of white blood cells called "lymphocytes."

Normally, lymphocytes help the body fight infection. When a person has lymphoma, the lymphocytes become abnormal, grow out of control, and travel to different parts of the body. The abnormal cells often collect in bean-shaped organs called lymph nodes. This can make the lymph nodes swell. They can also affect other parts of the lymphatic system, such as the spleen.

What are the symptoms of Hodgkin lymphoma?

Most people with Hodgkin lymphoma first notice a swollen, painless lymph node in the neck. People can also have swollen lymph nodes above the collar bone, or in the armpit or groin.

Lymph nodes deeper in the body can become swollen and cause symptoms. For example, swollen lymph nodes in the chest can cause a cough, trouble breathing, or chest pain.

Some people can also have:

Fever
Weight loss
Drenching sweats

Is there a test for Hodgkin lymphoma?

Yes. Your doctor or nurse will talk with you and do an exam. They will also do:

Blood tests
Lymph node biopsy – For a biopsy, a doctor will remove 1 of the swollen lymph nodes. It will be examined under a microscope to see if lymphoma cells are present.

What is lymphoma staging?

Lymphoma staging is a way in which doctors find out how far the lymphoma has spread in the lymphatic system or in the body.

Hodgkin lymphoma usually starts in lymph nodes in the neck or chest. If the cancer spreads, it usually spreads to nearby lymph nodes, and then to organs such as the spleen or liver.

To check how far your Hodgkin lymphoma has spread, your doctor will do an exam, blood tests, and an imaging test, such as a CT or PET scan. Imaging tests create pictures of the inside of the body.

Your doctor might also do a bone marrow biopsy. For this test, a doctor will take a small sample of bone marrow (the tissue in the center of your bones). The sample is then examined under a microscope to check for cancer cells.

The right treatment for you depends a lot on the stage of your Hodgkin lymphoma.

How is Hodgkin lymphoma treated?

Treatment can include:

Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. Doctors can use different chemotherapy medicines to treat Hodgkin lymphoma. Your doctor will work with you to choose the ones that are right for you.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells. It is used along with chemotherapy for some people with Hodgkin lymphoma.

People whose Hodgkin lymphoma doesn't get better with treatment or comes back after treatment might have a bone marrow transplant. This is sometimes called a "stem cell transplant."

In most cases, the right treatment can cure Hodgkin lymphoma.

Kaposi Sarcoma

Kidney Cancer:

What is kidney cancer?

Kidney cancer happens when normal cells in the kidney change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. People have 2 kidneys, 1 on each side of the mid-back. The kidneys' job is to filter the blood and remove waste and excess salt and water. Urine is made up of these ingredients.

What are the symptoms of kidney cancer?

Smaller kidney tumors do not always cause symptoms. But larger tumors and tumors that have spread outside of the kidney can cause symptoms, such as:

Blood in urine
Pain on either side of your lower back, in your side, or in your stomach
A lump in your belly or on the side of your back
Weight loss that you cannot explain

These symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not cancer. But if you have these symptoms, you should be checked by a doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for kidney cancer?

Yes. If you have symptoms of kidney cancer, your doctor or nurse might order a test to check your kidneys. These tests can show tumors or abnormal growths. They create images of your kidneys in different ways, and they include:

CT scan (a type of X-ray)
MRI (a test that uses magnets to create images)
Ultrasound (a test that uses sound waves to create images)

What is kidney cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far a cancer has spread.

The right treatment for you will depend a lot on the stage of your cancer.

How is kidney cancer treated?

People with kidney cancer often have 1 or both of the following treatments:

Medical treatment – Different medicines can also be used to treat kidney cancer, particularly if it cannot be removed or if there is evidence that it has spread. This might include:
- Targeted therapy – This includes medicines that block certain blood vessels or proteins in your body that help the cancer grow.
- Immunotherapy – This is the term doctors use for medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system (the "immune system") to stop cancer growth.

Lung Cancer( Non Small Cell):

What is non-small cell lung cancer?

Non-small cell lung cancer is 1 type of lung cancer. Lung cancer happens when normal lung cells change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. There are different types of lung cancer. Some types grow faster than others.

Non-small cell lung cancer is the most common type of lung cancer. It does not usually grow as fast as another type of lung cancer called small cell lung cancer.

What is lung cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far in your body a cancer has spread. To describe how far a person's non-small cell lung cancer has spread, doctors call it stage 1, 2, 3, or 4. These are also written as stage I, II, III, or IV.

Sometimes, staging can be tricky. For example, your doctor might think that you have stage 1 or stage 2 cancer. But after you have surgery, your doctor might check the tissues you had removed and discover that you really have stage 3 cancer.

Here are some of the main differences between the stages:

In stage 1, the lung cancer is in either the left or right lung. It has not spread outside of the lung or to any lymph nodes. (Lymph nodes are bean-shaped organs that are part of the body's infection-fighting system.) Stage 1 cancers are usually small.
In stage 2, the cancer has spread to other parts of the lung, such as lymph nodes in the lung or the lining around the lung. Stage 2 cancers can be different sizes.
In stage 3, the cancer might be large. Or it might have spread to lymph nodes in the middle of the chest, between the left and right lungs.
In stage 4, the cancer has spread to the other lung or to other parts of the body, such as the brain or bones. Also, lung cancer is described as stage 4 if it causes fluid to collect around the outside of the lungs.

Your treatment will depend a lot on the stage of your lung cancer.

How are stage 1 and stage 2 non-small cell lung cancers treated?

People with stage 1 or stage 2 non-small cell lung cancer are usually first treated with surgery to remove the cancer. To remove the cancer, a doctor might remove part of a lung. Or they might need to remove the whole lung. (People who have 1 lung removed can use their other lung to breathe.)

People with stage 1 lung cancer might not need any other treatment after surgery. But people with stage 2 lung cancer usually need more treatment after surgery. This can include:

Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells. Some people who do not want surgery or who cannot have surgery have radiation therapy instead.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
Other treatments – Depending on the characteristics of your cancer, you might get other treatments. One example is immunotherapy, which means medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system to stop cancer growth. Another is targeted therapy, which means medicines that work for cancers with certain characteristics. Your doctor might do tests to find out if these treatments might work for your cancer.

Sometimes, people with stage 1 or stage 2 cancer are treated with radiation therapy rather than surgery. This might be the case if they have other problems that prevent them from having surgery.

How is stage 3 non-small cell lung cancer treated?

Doctors can treat stage 3 non-small cell lung cancer in different ways. Treatment depends on where the cancer is, how big it is, and which treatments a person has already had.

People with stage 3 lung cancer usually have 1 or more of the following treatments:

Chemotherapy
Radiation
Immunotherapy
Surgery

Doctors also treat another type of lung cancer, called a "Pancoast tumor," using some of these treatments. A Pancoast tumor is a lung cancer that grows in the top part of the lung.

Liver Cancer:

Liver Cancer

Liver cancer happens when normal cells in the liver change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The liver is a big organ in the upper right si

Liver Cancer

Liver cancer happens when normal cells in the liver change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The liver is a big organ in the upper right side of the belly

Liver cancer happens when normal cells in the liver change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The liver is a big organ in the upper right side of the belly.

What are the symptoms of liver cancer?

Liver cancer does not usually cause any symptoms of its own. A few patients might have a lump or mild pain in the upper belly, feel full early on when they try to eat, or lose weight.

Others might have symptoms that are caused by the liver disease they had before they got cancer. Those symptoms can get worse or come back because of the cancer. They include:

Swelling of the belly or legs
The skin or white part of the eyes turning yellow

The skin or white part of the eyes turning yellow.

Is there a test for liver cancer?

Yes. If your doctor suspects you have liver cancer, they will do 1 or more of the following tests:

Blood tests
An MRI scan, CT scan, ultrasound, or other imaging test – Imaging tests create pictures of the inside of the body and can show abnormal growths.
Biopsy – For this test, a doctor will remove a small sample of tissue from the liver. Another doctor will look at the sample under a microscope to see if it has cancer.

What is liver cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out if a cancer has spread past the layer of tissue where it began and, if so, how far.

How is liver cancer treated?

Liver cancer can be treated in different ways. Treatment depends on the stage of your cancer. It also depends on how healthy your liver is (in other words, how serious your liver disease was before you got cancer). The different treatments include:

Surgery – Liver cancer can sometimes be treated with surgery to remove the part of the liver with the cancer.
Liver transplant – A liver transplant is a type of surgery in which a doctor replaces a diseased liver with a healthy liver from another person.
Ablation therapy – Ablation therapy is a procedure that can kill cancer cells in the liver. It does not involve surgery. Doctors can do ablation therapy in different ways. They can kill the cancer cells using heat, microwaves, a laser, or radiation therapy.
Blocking the cancer's blood supply – Doctors can do a procedure called "embolization" to block off the blood vessel that sends blood to the cancer. This keeps the cancer from growing by "starving" it of its blood supply. Sometimes, the embolization procedure is combined with chemotherapy ("chemoembolization") or radiation ("radioembolization").
Immunotherapy – This is the term doctors use for medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system (the "immune system") to stop cancer growth.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.

Melanoma

Mesothelioma

Multiple Myeloma

Myelodysplastic Syndromes

Myeloproliferative Neoplasm

Neuroendocrine and Adrenal Tumors

Ovarian Cancer:

What is ovarian cancer?

Ovarian cancer happens when normal cells in the ovary change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The ovaries are part of your reproductive system . If you still have monthly periods, your ovaries release an egg about once a month.

Ovarian cancer occurs most often between the ages of 50 and 65 but can happen at any age. Sometimes, ovarian cancer runs in families.

What are the symptoms of ovarian cancer?

Symptoms of ovarian cancer can include:

Your stomach getting bigger or feeling bloated

Stomach pain

Feeling full or having trouble eating

Needing to urinate often or feeling like you suddenly need to urinate urgently

These symptoms are common and, in many cases, are caused by conditions that are not ovarian cancer. But if you start having these symptoms and they continue or get worse, let your doctor or nurse know.

Many people have no symptoms of ovarian cancer but learn that they have it when a growth is found in or near 1 of their ovaries. This sometimes happens during a pelvic exam or an imaging test, like an ultrasound, that was done for another reason. If this happens, your doctor or nurse might then do more tests to check for ovarian cancer.

Is there a test for ovarian cancer?

Yes. If your doctor suspects that you have ovarian cancer, they might order 1 or more of the following:

Ultrasound or other imaging tests – These tests create images of the inside of the body and can show abnormal growths.
Blood tests – There is no blood test that can tell for sure if you have ovarian cancer. But if your doctor thinks that you might have it, they might order some lab tests. One test is called the "CA 125" blood test. CA 125 is a protein in the blood that can go up when a person has ovarian cancer. But it can also go up with other conditions that are not ovarian cancer.

The CA 125 test is mostly helpful in people who have already gone through menopause and no longer have monthly periods. It can't clearly tell your doctor whether or not you have ovarian cancer. But it can help them decide whether they need to do surgery to learn more. They might do other blood tests to better understand your risk of ovarian cancer, too.

Surgery – The only way to know for sure if a person has ovarian cancer is for a doctor to do surgery and remove the ovary. While the surgery is going on, another doctor will usually look at cells from the ovary under a microscope to check for cancer. If cancer is present, the doctor will usually continue surgery and treat the cancer by removing as much of it as possible. Most of the time, this involves doing a surgery called "total hysterectomy with salpingo-oophorectomy" (figure 2). For this surgery, the doctor removes the ovaries, the tubes that connect the ovaries to the uterus (called the fallopian tubes), and the uterus. If the cancer has spread to other nearby organs, the doctor might remove parts of those, too.

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far a cancer has spread.

How is ovarian cancer treated?

In most cases, having surgery to remove the cancer is the first part of treatment. Further treatment will depend a lot on the stage of your cancer and your other medical problems.

Some people might not need any more treatment after surgery. Others might need further treatment that includes chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. Usually, these medicines go into a vein. But sometimes, they can go through a small tube into the lower part of your stomach.

What if I want to get pregnant later?

If you want to get pregnant later in life, talk to your doctor about this before starting treatment. It is usually not possible to get pregnant after having treatment for ovarian cancer. But in some cases, it might be possible to plan treatment so that pregnancy is still possible.

What happens after treatment?

After treatment, you will be checked every so often to see if the cancer comes back. Follow-up tests usually include blood tests, exams, and imaging tests.

You should also watch for the symptoms listed above, because having those symptoms could mean that the cancer has come back. Tell your doctor or nurse if you have any symptoms.

What happens if the cancer comes back or spreads?

If the cancer comes back or spreads, you might have more surgery or chemotherapy. You might also have a medicine called targeted therapy, which can help prevent cancer growth.

Can ovarian cancer be prevented?

If ovarian, breast, uterine, or colon cancer runs in your family, talk to your doctor. There might be things that you can do to lower your risk of cancer.

Pancreatic Cancer:

What is pancreatic cancer?

Pancreatic cancer happens when normal cells in the pancreas change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The pancreas is an organ that sits behind the stomach. It makes hormones and juices that help the body break down food.

What are the symptoms of pancreatic cancer?

Symptoms of pancreatic cancer can include:

Pain – People can have pain that spreads from their stomach area around to their back. The pain can come and go, and it can get worse after eating.
Weight loss – People might not feel hungry or might feel full after eating very little.
Diarrhea – Bowel movements can look greasy or be difficult to flush in the toilet bowl.
Yellowing of the skin, called jaundice – Both the skin and the white part of the eyes can turn yellow. When jaundice happens in people with pancreatic cancer, it is usually because one of the tubes that carry bile from the gallbladder to the intestines is blocked. (The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ that stores bile, a fluid that helps the body break down fat.) If a bile duct gets blocked, it can also cause your bowel movements to look gray instead of brown.

These symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not pancreatic cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse about them.

Is there a test for pancreatic cancer?

Yes. If your doctor suspects you have pancreatic cancer, they will order 1 or more tests. These can include:

Blood tests
Imaging tests – These might include an ultrasound, a CT scan, an MRI scan, or a test called ERCP (which stands for "endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography"). These tests create pictures of the inside of the body and can show abnormal growths.
Biopsy – For a biopsy, a doctor takes a small sample of tissue from the pancreas. Then another doctor will look at the sample under a microscope to check for cancer.

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far a cancer has spread.

The right treatment for you will depend a lot on the stage of your cancer. Your treatment will also depend on your age and other medical problems.

How is pancreatic cancer treated?

People with pancreatic cancer might be offered 1 or more of the following treatments:

Surgery – Pancreatic cancer can sometimes be treated with surgery to remove the cancer. Before surgery, a doctor might do a procedure called "laparoscopy." In a laparoscopy, a doctor will make small cuts in the belly. They will put a thin tube with a camera on it inside the belly to check whether there is spread of cancer outside of the pancreas.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.
Immunotherapy – This is the term doctors use for medicines that work with the body's infection-fighting system (the "immune system") to stop cancer growth.

Pancreatic cancer can sometimes be cured with treatment. This is most likely in people whose cancer is found at an early stage. Even if your pancreatic cancer cannot be cured, your doctor can treat your symptoms. For example, they can prescribe medicine or a procedure called a celiac plexus block to reduce your pain.

Penile Cancer

Primary Cutaneous Lymphomas

Prostate Cancer:

What is prostate cancer?

Prostate cancer happens when normal cells in the prostate gland change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The prostate gland makes fluid that is part of semen. This gland sits below the bladder and in front of the rectum, and forms a ring around the urethra, the tube that carries urine out of the body.

Prostate cancer occurs most often in males older than 50 years. Although prostate cancer is very common, most people do not die from it. This is because prostate cancer usually grows very slowly.

What are the symptoms of prostate cancer?

Prostate cancer often causes no symptoms at first. But if symptoms do occur, they can include:

Needing to urinate more often than usual
A urine stream that is slower than usual

These symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not prostate cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for prostate cancer?

Yes. Doctors use a blood test called a PSA test and an exam called a rectal exam to check for prostate cancer. In a rectal exam, your doctor or nurse puts a finger in your anus and up into your rectum. They press on the rectum wall to feel for abnormal areas on the prostate.

If your doctor or nurse suspects that you have prostate cancer, they will follow up with 1 or more tests. These can include:

Biopsy – A doctor will take a small sample of tissue from your prostate. Then, another doctor will look at the sample under a microscope to see if it has cancer.
Ultrasound, MRI scan, or other imaging tests – These tests create images of the inside of the body and can show abnormal growths.

Ultrasound, MRI scan, or other imaging tests – These tests create images of the inside of the body and can show abnormal growths.

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far a cancer has spread.

How is prostate cancer treated?

People with prostate cancer can often choose their treatment.

The main options are:

Active surveillance – If you choose this option, you will not have treatment right away. But you will have routine tests to check whether the cancer is starting to grow more quickly. If so, you can start active treatment then.
Surgery – Prostate cancer can sometimes be treated with surgery to remove the prostate gland.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells. Radiation can be given from a machine that moves around your body. Or a doctor might put a source of radiation directly into your prostate gland.
Hormone therapy – Male hormones in the body make prostate cancer grow. Hormone therapy reduces the levels of these hormones, which can shrink the cancer. For hormone therapy, you might take medicines. Or you might have surgery to remove your testicles. (Male hormones are made in the testicles.) This treatment is usually only for those with advanced cancer. But some people with early-stage cancer get it along with radiation or surgery.
Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing. If you have advanced prostate cancer, you might get chemotherapy if hormone therapy stops working. In some cases, chemotherapy and hormone therapy are given at the same time.

Some people, especially older males with other serious medical conditions, might choose not to do any of the above. Instead, they might choose "watchful waiting." Watchful waiting is not exactly the same as active surveillance. It does not require regular testing but involves treating symptoms when they happen.

How do I choose which treatment to have?

You and your doctor will have to work together to choose the right treatment for you. The right treatment will depend on:

You and your doctor will have to work together to choose the right treatment for you. The right treatment will depend on:
Your age
Whether you have other health problems
How you feel about the treatment options

Always let your doctors and nurses know how you feel about a treatment. Any time you are offered a treatment, ask:

Always let your doctors and nurses know how you feel about a treatment. Any time you are offered a treatment, ask:
What are the downsides to this treatment?
Are there other options besides this treatment?
What happens if I do not have this treatment?

Rectal Cancer

Small Bowel Adenocarcinoma

Soft Tissue Sarcoma

Squamous Cell Skin Cancer

Testicular Cancer:

What is testicular cancer?

Testicular cancer happens when normal cells in 1 or both testicles change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The testicles are found inside a skin sac called the "scrotum" (figure 1). They make sperm and male hormones.

Testicular cancer occurs most often between the ages of 15 and 35. There are different types of testicular cancer. But most cases of testicular cancer, whatever the type, can be cured with treatment.

What are the symptoms of testicular cancer?

The first symptom of testicular cancer is often a lump or swelling in the scrotum that is not painful. Other symptoms can include:

A dull ache or heavy feeling in the low belly, or around the anus or scrotum.
Pain in the testicles or scrotum

These symptoms can be caused by conditions that are not cancer. But if you feel a lump in your testicle, see your doctor or nurse as soon as possible.

Is there a test for testicular cancer?

Yes. If your doctor or nurse thinks that you might have testicular cancer, they might order a testicular ultrasound. This is an imaging test that creates pictures of the inside of the testicles and can show abnormal growths. A mass or lump seen on ultrasound can be a sign of testicular cancer.

The only way to know for sure if you have testicular cancer is for a doctor to remove the abnormal testicle and send it to a lab to be checked for cancer. Surgery to remove a testicle is called an "orchiectomy."

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way for doctors to find out if the cancer has spread beyond the testicles to other parts of the body. Staging usually involves blood tests, CT scans, or other imaging tests. Based on the test results, the cancer is then given a "stage," for example, "stage 1." The stage of your cancer helps your doctor to figure out your options for treatment.

How is testicular cancer treated?

Removing the testicle is the first part of treatment. Further treatment depends on:

The type of cancer that is found
Whether there is a risk that the cancer could return – This risk is based on the type of cancer, but also on whether it has spread outside of the testicle. In some cases, doctors will also do blood tests to check "tumor markers." These are substances in the blood produced by the cancer. Measuring the levels of these markers can help guide treatment.

In general, the treatment options for testicular cancer could include any of the following:

Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells.
Surgery – Testicular cancer is sometimes treated with surgery to remove nearby lymph nodes, which are bean-shaped internal organs. This surgery can help prevent the spread of testicular cancer in the body. A doctor might also do surgery to remove a mass in another part of the body if the cancer has spread.
Monitoring for changes – If you have early testicular cancer, treatment beyond removing the testicle is not always needed. In these cases, doctors sometimes recommend simply monitoring the body for changes that could indicate the return of cancer. This involves getting regular exams, blood tests, and imaging tests. It is also called "surveillance."

What if I want to have a child one day?

If you want to be able to get a partner pregnant in the future, talk with your doctor. Some treatments for testicular cancer can reduce or stop sperm production. You might choose to store your sperm before treatment so you can use it in the future to have a child.

Thymomas and Thymic Carcinomas

Thyroid Carcinoma

Uterine Cancer:

What is uterine cancer?

Uterine cancer happens when normal cells in the uterus change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The uterus is the part of the body tha

What is uterine cancer?

Uterine cancer happens when normal cells in the uterus change into abnormal cells and grow out of control. The uterus is the part of the body that holds a baby if you are pregnant. The uterus has a thin inner lining layer and a thick outer layer

There are different types of uterine cancer, but most uterine cancer starts in cells in the thin inner lining. Uterine cancer can occur at any age but is much more common in people who have gone through menopause. (Menopause is the time in life when you stop having menstrual periods).

What are the symptoms of uterine cancer?

The most common symptom of uterine cancer is abnormal vaginal bleeding. Abnormal vaginal bleeding includes:

Bleeding in between menstrual cycles (when you are not having your period)
Menstrual bleeding that is heavier than usual
Any vaginal bleeding if you have been through menopause

These symptoms can also be caused by conditions that are not cancer. But if you have these symptoms, tell your doctor or nurse.

Is there a test for uterine cancer?

Yes. If you have abnormal vaginal bleeding, your doctor or nurse might order a test called a biopsy to check for uterine cancer. During a biopsy, a doctor takes a small sample of tissue from the uterine lining. Another doctor looks at the sample under a microscope to see if cancer is present.

If you have gone through menopause, an imaging test called an ultrasound might be done first to check for uterine cancer. This test measures how thick the uterine lining is. If the lining appears abnormal, a biopsy will be done.

What is cancer staging?

Cancer staging is a way in which doctors find out how far the cancer has spread.

The right treatment for you depends a lot on the stage of your cancer and how fast it is growing. Your treatment also depends on your age and other medical problems.

How is uterine cancer treated?

Most people with uterine cancer have surgery to remove the uterus, the ovaries, and the tubes connecting the ovaries to the uterus (fallopian tubes). This surgery is called a "hysterectomy" (figure 2 and figure 3). During surgery, the doctor will also check the area and organs around the uterus to see if the cancer has spread. They might remove other organs that look abnormal.

Some people will not need further treatment after surgery if surgery removes the cancer. But other people might need further treatment with 1 or both of the following:

Chemotherapy – Chemotherapy is the medical term for medicines that kill cancer cells or stop them from growing.
Radiation therapy – Radiation kills cancer cells. Radiation can be given from a machine that is outside of the body. Or a doctor can put a source of radiation directly into the vagina.

Some people can first be treated with hormone medicines called "progestins" instead of surgery. But this is done only in special situations.

Uterine Neoplasms

Vulvar Cancer